Spartacus soon saw that he was dealing not with the old generals and the army; he immediately left the plan of the movement in Rome and went with the rebels in droves to Lucania. Crassus followed them closely. Both commanders with the same art have avoided a decisive battle; but Crassus has destroyed all enemy units, dared to separate from the main force, cut off them to bring up the food and drove of slaves still further to the South. Then Spartak have been in talks with the pirates, hoping, through them, to transport the army revolt in Sicily, where the slaves was even more than in Italy.

The pirates took the agreed fee for the move to Sicily, but withdrew from the Bank, but only treasure to rebellious slaves were loaded on their ships, and left Spartacus with his rebellious crowds on the Italian shore. The deceived slaves headed for the forested mountain Power (Sila) in Bruttia. Here Crassus so closely surrounded the camp ramparts and trenches that Spartacus could only die of starvation or quickly break through enemy fortifications. He chose the latter and happily made their way through the trenches of Crassus. The Romans came first in such confusion, that even the thought to call from Spain Pompey, but soon calmed down when he saw that, still agree among themselves, the slaves broke, and the Gauls are again separated from the troops.

After receiving this news, Crassus tried to eliminate the arrival of Pompey, which in this case would shake the fruits of his labors. Initially, the attacking Gauls, and absolutely destroying them, put Crassus Spartacus ‘ army in this critical situation that he had no other outcome, as voluntarily surrender into the hands of the enemy, or to join in battle under the most adverse circumstances for themselves. Spartacus decided on the latter, but was defeated and died a welcome death. Crassus pursued the scattered crowd of slaves, exterminating them without mercy. The Roman General did not even spare the prisoners, and hanged or crucified six thousands of them in the trees on the high road from Capua to Rome (71 BC). The number of slaves killed during revolt of Spartacus, stretched to more than seventy thousand.

Crassus returned to Rome with full confidence that liberated the country from great danger. He foresaw that Pompey, who was then from Spain through Upper Italy, would have to collect the remains of his harvest. In the remote parts of Lucania was a small number of rebellious slaves, which joined the large crowd of fugitives, survivors from the last battle, so that the whole mass of them stretched to five thousand people. This crowd of former troops of Spartacus sought refuge in the Alps, completely by accident but was overtaken and defeated by Pompey. For this empty fight Pompey, openly make claim to his share in the glory to Crassus. Informing the Senate about his imaginary heroic exploits, Pompey said that Crassus had defeated the slaves in the right battles, but that he ripped out the root of the revolt of Spartacus. It must have been to sow discord between Pompey and Crassus, especially since they are first out of jealousy and ambition are not quite friendly looked at each other.

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The revolt of Spartacus was a terrible revenge slaves for the brutal violence of the Roman aristocracy, purchased at public expense to vast estates, and cultivated them with the help of many thousand slaves. In Sicily and Italy free rural bar after the Second and Third Punic wars were largely destroyed and replaced by a huge number of slaves, just as in our time, the part of factory workers replaced by machines. Shortly before the revolt of Spartacus, the danger, which threatened the state from slaves, increased even more. The location of the people for gladiatorial games and the desire of the noble Romans to outdo each other in the device for the people these terrible pleasure remarkably increased the number of slaves, distinguished by strength and savagery of manners. In Thrace, Gaul and other barbarous countries, slaves were bought in droves, were accustomed to gladiatorial battle and was sold for the battle for life and death are special officials in charge of the public amusements. Selling slaves was even a special kind of industry. Merchants’ slaves counted while in the civil concern. Choosing a strong and courageous slaves and teach them to battle, they have sold their ambitious the people’s tribunes and other violators of the public peace, and who used them instead of their guardians, in order to be able, in case of need, to resort to open force.

The main facilities for the training of gladiators were in Ravenna and Capua, because in both these cities, life was much cheaper than Rome and other places. About the benefits, this industry can be judged from the fact that even many free men did in Gladiator, and some of the senators and riders are not considered derogatory to their dignity to have a gladiatorial school and personally supervise the exercise of slaves. However, gladiators in fact hardly rougher so popular now in the world of Boxing.

Terrible slave war of Spartacus broke out in 73 BC started in a school for the soldiers in Capua. Seventy-three slave escaped from the prison, which was signed by its cruel owner, Lentulus by Batiatus for Gladiator training in the art. Fugitives captured in the nearby taverns and butchers knives and a skewer, freed their brethren, and departed from the city. Thence, they had intended or to reach one of the free cities, or, in the case of extremes, with the arms expensive to sell his life instead of sacrificing it for the fun of ill people. Near the town, the rebels came across the transport of weapons assigned to their rulers. Mastering the transport, they occupied a strong position at the foot of Vesuvius, and repulsed the troops sent to chase them, and the former seized their weapons.

After the rebellious slaves was elected leader of the Thracian Spartacus, the main culprit for their release. Their selection was extremely successful: Spartak have the talent of the commander, knew the terrain and knew how to skillfully use it. Under the command of Spartacus, the slaves destroyed several cages in which were imprisoned the slaves, and attracted to his side many even free citizens, who were thirsting for plunder, or driven by poverty to despair. In a short time, the number of rebels increased to such an extent that they were able to capture and loot many of the cities Campaign. The revolt of Spartacus joined by many slaves, which in the cities to the Lucania grazed the herds of the Roman aristocracy. The shepherds and the poor mountaineers, engaged in the same trade, could be very useful to escaped slaves; it was the people, tempered in the storm and extremely capable for the war in the mountains. The number of the rebel slaves rallied around Spartacus finally rose to seventy thousand people, which consisted mainly of Thracians and Gauls. The latter were especially numerous. Making, under the leadership of their leaders, Oenomaus and Crixus, a separate detachment, they are made in the country the same terrible devastation, later during the peasants ‘ war and the French revolution, a fierce crowd of people devastated southern Germany and France.

Spartacus defeated several Roman sent against him troops and seized their weapons, had armed his crowd as a regular army. However, he tried in vain to introduce among his hordes of discipline and proper organization; the insurgent slaves continued to ravage the country and the war, like all such disturbances, he took a terrible character. He had often to resort to atrocities to satisfy the thirst for revenge of their subordinates. The slaves arrived with the Romans as well as the lately rebellious Negroes San Domingo with the Europeans, or as did the Romans with them. They held solemn games in honor of their fallen brethren, and hundreds of prisoners the Romans had to fight each other as gladiators.

Despite the lack of discipline in the army of slaves, Spartacus fought a war with great art, and in the course of two years, kept a whole strip of land now occupied by the provinces of Basilicata and Calabria. Finally convinced that the rebels in droves, you cannot expect anything good in the future, Spartacus tried to persuade the army to take advantage of their victories to escape from Italy and the United forces to get to the Alps, where every taken with treasure could return home. Gallic slaves rebelled against the intention of Spartacus, and the army was divided into two parts. A large part of the Gauls under the leadership of Crixus went along the Eastern shore of Italy, and Spartacus and the others moved along the base of the Apennines to the Top of Italy.

The first was soon met by a Roman army and destroyed. The winner of them, one of the two consuls of 72 BC, immediately after the battle hastened to join his friend, who led other troops went against Spartacus. However, the latter stepped in his way and on the same day defeated both consuls. Few time Spartacus defeated in Upper Italy even two armies, under the command of proconsul and praetor. Now nothing could prevent successful completion of the trip to the Alps, but Spartacus, blinded by happiness, left her, almost fulfilled the plan and decided to March on Rome. The Roman army, intending to stop his movement, was broken to pieces; but this victory was the last victory of the revolt of Spartacus.1

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The following year, Aristide, as the head of the agrarian-aristocratic party was elected archon. The leader of the industrial-democratic groupings Themistocles, jealous of the esteem in which Aristide used in people, but not daring to accuse him publicly dismissed rumors that he is plotting to seize sole power. The result of people’s envy was that fair Aristide was expelled from the Fatherland, with the help of ostracism (vote shards in the national Assembly). Leaving his homeland, Aristide prayed to the gods to protect her from harm, which could make the ungrateful Athenians to repent of his actions.

Nevertheless, when three years later began the second Persian war, the army of Xerxes occupied Attica, and Athens burned them, citizens are reminded of the famous exile. Aristides from Aegina arrived on the island of Salamis, where was assembled the Greek fleet, and, after coming to terms with Themistocles, he announced that naval forces of the Persian king from all sides surrounded the Greeks. Themistocles, using a Ruse to prevent the Greeks to leave his lucrative position at Salamis, committed to Aristide that his secret. During the Salaminian battle of (480 B. H.) Aristide with a small detachment took the island Psyttalia, and gave it shelter his compatriots, whose ships were smashed in the battle. In Plateyan battle of (479 BC), he was the chief of the Athenians.

I believe that in the following year, Aristide was re-elected archon. As a conservative by conviction, but in no way opposing the idea of broad participation of people in governance, he contributed to the publication of the law, according to which all citizens without exception, were eligible for election to the highest public office. When Themistocles announced that he has in mind a very important case, which, however, cannot speak publicly to the people, the citizens of Athens have determined that Aristide had considered this matter and expressed his opinion. The proposal of Themistocles was to burn all the Greek ships gathered in the nearby harbor and to ensure that to the Athenians the dominion of the sea. Aristide told the people that nothing could be more advantageous for the Republic, and, however unjust the proposal of Themistocles, and due to the fact it was rejected.

Aristide rivalry with Themistocles never completely stopped. They say that going one day from the meeting after a heated dispute with Themistocles, it is said that the true benefit of the Fatherland demands that both of them threw in Varathron – abyss where overthrown by criminals.

Using the discontent of the Hellenic allies against the Spartan king Pausanias and command of Sparta in the Persian war, the leaders of the Athenian conservatives of Aristides and Miltiades the son of Kimon, his moderation, was able to bind allies to you after the creation of the First Athenian Sea Union to deliver his country the supremacy in Greece. Aristide was also able to persuade the allies to a constant contribution to wage war with Persia, and to him power of attorney, he was instructed to distribute them among the Greeks the size of this payment and collect the amount, which, in the treatises, were to be kept on the island of Delos. From the name of this island and the Union rallied around Athens, called the Delian League.

Aristide died in a ripe old age. Because of honesty after a long administration of his country and the finances of the Delian League was not even money for a private burial. Aristide was buried at the expense of the national Treasury. Fellow citizens erected a monument to him in the Athenian Harbor Phaleras, gave a dowry to his two daughters and a considerable sum of money from the estate to his son.

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Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1091 – 1153) came from noble Burgansky names, who had his family residence, the castle of Fontaine, near Dijon. His biography of his youth was connected with the Church. Mother Bernarda was a woman ascetic direction, wanted to be a nun, married against their will. Children inherited the austerity of the mother; there were many of them; they all took monastic vows. Bernard studied at school. He soon became an enemy of philosophy; he drew against her dialectic, which he well learned. A handsome young man who knew how to attract people, he is 23 year of life came (1113) by a monk in the Cistercian (Cytoscope) Abbey, the former by the Church of the Cistercian order. Together took vows thirty of his friends, went to the monks in his opinion.

Bernard spent two years in Sitecom Abbey, famous for the severity of his asceticism, then was appointed (1115) the prior of the monastery founded by the Cistercians in the desert, the harsh valley of the river Oba (Aube), in the Duchy of Burgundy, then. This valley served as a den of robbers; now she had the name “Light (famous) Valley,” Clara Vallis, Clairvaux, and soon the name became really famous in the West. Young prior Bernard of Clairvaux was the weakest of the monks’ health, but surpassed them all with feats of asceticism, fasting, prayers duration, severity to themselves, and mercy to others; all the spare hours he spent in reading the Bible in devout meditation among the forests. Under his leadership the monastery of Clairvaux became a temple of chastity and of all the ascetic virtues, eclipsed his fame Stokoe Abbey; number received into the community of Bernard of Clairvaux had increased to such an extent that it took to build in Klervossky the valley to another monastery. From Clervaux out bishops, archbishops, cardinals; one of the monks of Clairvaux had become even Pope; these spiritual dignitaries all his life continued to honor Bernard as a coach. Originated 170 monasteries, recognize Clervaux his Archdiocese. Bernard became the Advisor of the Emperor. Pope Eugene III, a former monk of Clairvaux, was considered the greatest virtue of his unconditional reverence to Bernard, his mentor; Bernard gave him “a Reflection on papal Sana’a”, in which he said that the Pope should be the judge of the peoples and peacemaker, humble, and noble-shy Madding crowd.

The energy and learning with which Bernard of Clairvaux defended Church dogma against thinkers who deviate from it, gave him a strong influence on the clergy, he attracted princes grace of its secular education, the people of the sanctity of life and friendliness. Nobles and commoners with the same readily accepted his teachings. Exhausting yourself ascetic self-torture, he yet showed the same tireless activity. One of his biographers says: “He brought comfort to the saddened, helping the oppressed, the Council found it difficult, healing the sick, aid the poor”. He cared only about the salvation of the soul; he abhorred the pleasures that did not even admire the beauty of nature. Once Bernard rode all day on the lovely shores of Lake Geneva and immersed in his thoughts, did not notice the scenic area. The reverence showed to him by the people of all classes, did not make him haughty; he was modest and shy; he was eloquent and hot only when performed to protect the Church.

Saint Bernard of Clairvaux was a staunch fighter for the rights of the Pope and for the purity of Church doctrine, but was silent about the vices of the clergy, the abuses of papal authority. He was the solid Foundation of innocent II against the antipope Anacletus II, conquered Italian city, brought from Germany by the Emperor Lothair to protect him, but told him about the greed and lust for power of the papal government. Bernard wanted to give the Church victory over the Muslims, its external opponents and philosophers, who were considered internal enemies. He brought Christian rulers to go in the Second crusade; but for a few years before, Sansom Cathedral (1140), in the presence of the French king and many nobles demanded the condemnation of the rationalist Abelard and his disciple Arnold of Brescia; he pursued the fleeing Republicans and the heretic Arnold, arousing his Epistles, the persecution of him. In all the Church Affairs of that time, the voice of Bernard of Clairvaux had a strong significance and is often a decisive influence. He was offered five chairs from the most high; but he preferred the monastery of Clairvaux Shine them. His students occupied many Episcopal seats. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux was the reconciler of kings, the Supreme authority of the Western Church of his time. All the Nations of the West listened to his voice; his Epistles, written with great care about elegance and picturesque style, was read in all the Western lands.

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An Italian sailor by the name of which was called America. He was born March 9, 1451 in Florence, and died February 22, 1512 in Seville, Spain. Amerigo was educated and studied with his uncle Anthony Vespucci, a famous scientist. In 1490 he travelled as a merchant in Spain, where in Seville he enrolled in the Italian trade office. As in, the care of this office was the equipment of the second and third voyages of Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci had the opportunity to meet Columbus and finally decided to openly explore the new part of the world.

In 1499, Vespucci took part in the expedition of Admiral Alonso Goody to Suriname; in June of the following year, he returned to Spain and went to Portugal. Here Vespucci, in all probability, was accompanied in 1499 – 1500, of Pinson, who made the journey to Brazil and the West Indies. In 1501 – 1504. Amerigo Vespucci has taken on the Portuguese ships still two trips to America, during which they examined mainly the Brazilian coast up to Cape Cananea (25° South latitude), perhaps even somewhat to the South. At the insistence of Columbus in 1505 he again he entered the Spanish service, was in 1508 was appointed Chief Navigator to sail to India and received at the same time the rights of Spanish citizenship. The news that in 1507 Amerigo Vespucci made a fifth trip to America, inaccurate.

The proposal to call the New world named Amerigo, was made as it is first proved, Humboldt County, without his knowledge, the German typographer Martin Waldseemuller of Saint-dié in Lorraine. The latest in 1507 in the famous essay, “Cosmographiae introductio, etc.” was printed under the title of “Hylacomylus” description of the journey Vespucci. The proposal of Waldseemuller got soon a universal distribution. In the nineteenth century scientist, Mark tried to prove that the name America comes from the Native American tribe American or from the mountain chain in Nicaragua of the same name, and that Vespucci only later changed his original name Alberico. However, later it was proved the groundlessness of this assumption.

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King of England, youngest son of king Aethelwulf, and Asbury; b. in 849 in Berkshire. His grandfather Egbert, king of Wessex, at the beginning of the IX century United all the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms into one state — England. For 5-year-old boy Alfred was sent to Rome to be anointed by Pope Leo IV. A few years later, he undertook with his pious and generous to the Church father’s secondary journey to Rome. On the way, back they both spent quite a long time at the court of Charles the Bald, where a young Alfred became acquainted with a higher civilization. Only after the death of his elder brother æthelred in 871, Alfred was crowned king. Even before, he had to repel the invasion of the Danes. Reaching the throne, he exerted all his efforts to save the independence of the country. At first, he struggled without success, as the Danes came to England in greater numbers, and the Anglo-Saxons or subordinate to another’s yoke, or left home. He himself even had some time to hide from the enemy in the hut of a shepherd, in the County of Somerset. Here, in a desolate, swampy area, he laid the castle and when the people began to rebel against the Danes, summoned his adherents.

The tradition of the highly adorned military adventures of Alfred. Breaking in May 878 the Danes and subjecting them to himself, he allowed them, however, to retain their settlements in England, so that they recognized him as their king and adopted Christianity. In the next 6 years, he built a fortress, and commanded him to rebuild the ruined cities and monasteries and patronized agriculture, at the same time exercising your people in the art of war. A new invasion of the Danes (893) after a stubborn fight ended happily. Also successfully repelled it and repeated attacks of the Normans under the leadership of Hastings. Through legislation and concerns about public education, he tried to raise the level of national development and are characterized by simple justice as against the British and the Danes. Later, however, he began to ascribe such beneficent institutions, which they had been or just started, or already existed before the Anglo-Saxons, and Alfred was soon resumed, approved and more developed. To improve the management, he divided the province into smaller units (Shires), at the head of which put the counts (thans, earls); the County in turn was divided into desyatni, or tythings. Entered for the whole country judicial organization became the basis for later trial by jury. Alfred ordered to gather the ancient laws of Kent, Wessex and Mercia and joined them, with the addition of new laws in a single code, which became the basis of the Common law. In addition, he separated the judges from the leadership in the army. He tried his best to raise agriculture and trade.

As an ardent lover and advocate of science education, Alfred ordered to translate many works from the Latin language, which he learned only 36 year in the Anglo-Saxon. Some compositions, such as, e.g., Boethius “De consolatione philosophiae” and the history of Orosius, he translated himself, adding to the last notes of the travels of the German and Baltic seas and description of the Slavic lands, he sent 2 expedition of the Normans Ohthere, who visited the White sea, and Wulfstan infiltrated from Schleswig in the Gulf of Finland. To support such enterprises, and mainly for protection against the Normans, he strengthened his fleet, so it can be considered the founder of the English Navy. Alfred died on 26 or 28 October 901 G. the most Important source for his biography is the “Vita Alfredi” (“Life of Alfred”) , written by his friend Asser, the Welsh, and later Bishop of Sherburskie, characterized by simplicity of presentation (ed. Visa, Oxford., 1772), in “Monumenta historiae Britannicae” (vol. 1, Lond., 1848). Writings of Alfred in evangl. The translation distance of Giles in collaboration with Bosworth, etc. under the title “the Complete works of king Alfred the Great” (2 vols, Lond., 1858).

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Allodium (Allodium, alleu) – in feudal law form independent of land tenure. The word “allodium” is found in the barbaric truths in the form of alodis (Salic law, 59), where it means the inheritance by law (according to some, inheritance is exclusively movable). In the feudal era, in the XI – XIII centuries, the term “allodium” exclusively attached to the ground. Allodium is opposed to beneficial, the land, the right to the use of which is inextricably linked with the service and terminates with the termination of service, and Lena (the feud), the transfer of which inheritance, and alienation is possible only with the consent of the overlord and are paid a certain fee (relief). Allodium – land of the free and independent, it is full property of the owner. Allodial property is not caused by service and is not connected with any duties. Above it, there is suzerain. Allodium is inherited without any restrictions. When you inherit the rage usually is divided into equal parts among the heirs as opposed to mere fiefdom, where a senior has advantages and baronial, in the succession which adhered to a strict entail. In disposing of the allodium requires only the consent of the relatives, especially brothers, as persons directly concerned. No dues to the overlord, complicating the alienation of the feud, does not exist. Such is the legal nature of rage.

Len and allod as a form of tenure did not exclude one another. The rage dominated in that era, when in fact the feudal relations have not yet reached a large spread, when the fief system was developed. Classic country rage is the South of France: Aquitaine, Languedoc, Provence, etc. At that time, as in Northern and Central France was already in full force the rule nulle terre sans seigneur (“there is no land without a master”), i.e. each land should acknowledge him except the immediate owner, and the suzerain, in the South the steering is just the opposite: nulle terre sans seigneur – everyone needs to prove their right of suzerainty over the land with a written document; otherwise, land is considered as a rage. The predominance of allodia relations in the South of France due to the influence of Roman written law, which could not cope, grew up on the aristocratic soil of the German custom. From other countries allod was circulated in the interior of Germany more than anywhere else, due to the remnants of old customary law free, pre-feudal era. In addition, English tsenziva in fact closer to rage than to Lena, because that’s where the addiction comes down solely to the dues. From the XIII century the displacement of rage flax. The reasons for this are various. Allodium, in fact, always remained outside the feudal relations in the proper sense. In addition, allodial owners might not feel good among the domination of the feudal organization. They remained quite distinct to that time; the fief system was a strong bond. The complex feudal hierarchy provided mutual aid to all its members, and the last minor Baron knew that would always find help from his suzerain. To eliminate their isolation, allodial landowners tried to organize unions in opposition to the feudal, but they are not reaching goals. Freedom from service obligations were not rewarded for all these inconveniences, and allodial owners voluntarily, then forcibly were forced to transfer their land into fiefs. Feudal owners, ending with the king always looked askance at the existence of a free property and did not allow the case to give a feel for the owners of rage of isolation. In the end the rage, almost completely sinks in a network of fief ownership and in the XIV century comes only sporadically even in those countries where it was formerly dominant.

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The first king of the Visigoths; born. About 376 A. D. for lying in the mouth of the Danube island Pace and belonged to the family of Balts. After the death of Theodosius the Great in 395, who settled in the Roman Empire, the Visigoths chose as their king the 19-year-old Alaric, who during the life of Theodosius was their leader. After an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople, he ravaged Macedonia and Thessaly, and penetrated through the left without cover Thermopylae gorge in Greece. Athens was saved from ruin only a rich ransom, and Corinth, Argos, and Sparta fell under the blows of the fierce enemy. Finally, to protect the oppressed of the Roman Empire was the commander of the Western Roman Emperor Honorius — Stilicho (see this). He landed with his army near Corinth, and after several indecisive battles in Arcadia surrounded Alaric and his troops in Elis, so that the latter barely managed to retreat to Epirus. However, the Eastern Roman Emperor Arcady, jealous of the success of Silicone, made peace with Alaric, and appointed him Governor of Eastern Illyricum.

Alaric, whom all the tribes of his people have recognized their king and that the power was the third largest in the Roman Empire, dare (400) to produce an invasion of Italy. The siege of some cities, eg. Aquileia, apparently, robbed him of a lot of time, so Stilicho managed to pull to his legions from the outlying provinces and recruit auxiliary troops of the barbarians. The Emperor Honorius, who at the approach of the enemy to Milan wanted to escape to Gaul, was to lock himself in a small fortress of aster at Tanar, and is only an approximation of Silicone freed him from a dangerous situation. Shortly afterwards (April 6, 402) there was a battle of Pollentia (South-West of the asty). Alaric was forced to retreat after the second defeat inflicted on him at Verona, in the autumn started to go back to Illyria. A few years later after stallion who wanted to keep him away from the borders of Italy and to acquire his friendship for their plans against the Eastern Empire has signed a contract with him that Alaric was appointed Governor of the Western Empire with annual pay him 4000 pounds of gold.

Since the death of Silicone the Roman government refused to fulfill the contract concluded, in 408 Alaric again invaded Italy. In order not to slow down your movements to the siege of the residence of Honorius, Ravenna fortified, he walked along the shore, and then from Aluminum turned on Flaminius the road to Rome. Supply all kinds of supplies to this city was cut off and Rome soon was forced due to hunger and disease to begin negotiations. Nevertheless, since Ravenna yard refused to accept Alaric’s terms for peace, with 409 he again came to Rome. Occupation of the Harbor of Ostia, he quickly brought the city to the extreme position and forced him to admit the city prefect Attalus Emperor, and him, Alaric, the chief commander of the Western Roman Empire. Soon, however, he fell out with-Attalus and deprived of his Imperial dignity. When Ravenna yard, encouraged by the arrival of the auxiliary troops, again rejected the proposals of Alaric, the latter for the third time approached the walls of the capital. The Senate decided on a desperate resistance, but thanks to the betrayal of the few slaves who in the night time opened the gates Slaskie, Alaric captured the city on 24 August 410 After few days of looting Rome Alaric turned to southern Italy and prepared by the occupation of the Roman granaries of Sicily and Africa; but a storm sank many of his ships, prevented the success of this enterprise. Shortly after Alaric died. His body, according to Jordan, has been omitted along with many treasures on the bottom of the river Busento, and prisoners who were used for this work were put to death so that nobody could learn about the place of his burial. King after him was elected his son Ataulf.

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But during the preparations for the campaign happened on the night of May 11th was tilted all the Herms in Athens; the enemies of Alcibiades tried to throw on him the suspicion of the crime; but since he was in this case absolutely innocent, he was accused of ridiculing the Eleusinian mysteries. In vain Alcibiades demanded an immediate investigation of the case prior to the departure of the fleet; the expedition went, but after a few weeks. Utterly exasperated enemies of Alcibiades, the people demanded that he returned and appeared before the court. In Sicily, meanwhile, Alcibiades was able to carry out his plan, and the Athenians gained some successes; but for the further implementation of the plan had the personal presence of Alcibiades, which, meanwhile, in August, followed the orders of the people, but fled from the road (the Furies) and went to the Peloponnese. After receiving the news that the Athenian people condemned him and sentenced him to death, he at the end of the 415, it was taken over by the Spartans and had here in a very short time to become the people’s favorite, mainly due to the fact that strictly follow all traditional practices. He convinced the Spartans to come to the aid of and after the occupation Decelea to gain a foothold in Attica (413). At his advice, the Spartans decided after the unfortunate outcome of the Athenian expedition to Sicily to connect with the Persian Satrap Tissaphernes and help first to Chios, to tear him away from Athens.

He went there in the spring of 412 and led Ionian to revolt against Athens. Nevertheless, the happiness soon he changed. Full of mistrust and jealousy of the stranger, the Spartan aristocrats, led by their king Agis II, with his wife of which Alcibiades was involved, decided to kill the Alcibiades. Being warned in time, Alcibiades in October 412, was saved to Tissaphernes, and then he quickly is accustomed again to the Persian customs and the Persian way of life and becomes inseparable attorney Persian Satrap. He convinces him that full weakening of Athens contrary to the interests of Persia, which is much more reasonable to provide the Greek States are mutually weaken each other. Placing it gradually in favor of Athens, he enters into relations with the oligarchic leaders of the Athenian fleet stationed at Samos, and promises them to attract to their side Tissaphernes if they are overthrown in Athens democracy and impose oligarchic form of government. The proposal was met with agreement, but when Alcibiades in the end still failed to persuade Tissaphernes to the conclusion of the Alliance with the Athenians, the oligarchs-conspirators stopped with it relations; democracy in Athens was, however, in April 411 the city overthrown, and in its place introduced oligarchic rule of the so-called “400”. During the oligarchic coup by the army standing on Samos; it elected a new democratic generals and led them to put the Alcibiades. Already in the month of June fell the Athenian oligarchy, and who took her place a reasonable democracy gave Alcibiades the right to return to their homeland. However, he is still three years spent away from Athens, which had for that time enormous services.

In Oct. 411 his timely arrival helped the Athenians to win a victory at Abydos; then taking over the leadership of the Athenian army, Alcibiades defeated the Spartans and the Persians at Cyzicus (400), won 409 city of Khalkedon, Byzantium, etc., returned thus to the Athenians the command of the sea in June 408 triumphantly returned home. He was greeted with universal enthusiasm, which reached its climax when Alcibiades gave the Athenians to take under the protection of troops, a solemn procession in Eleusis, which they had long been deprived.

But it’s a brilliant time was short; clothed with the nation as a military leader, unlimited power, but at the same time, and equally hated by the oligarchs, and radical, Alcibiades in autumn with a fleet of 100 ships sent again to Asia. This time he had to deal with the new Spartan commander Lisandro, and he could not easily cope with: it was a man of wonderful mind and abilities, which you are generously provided with all the means to fight Cyrus, who appeared in the summer 408 to the theatre of war, as the Persian Viceroy in Lydia, great Phrygia and Cappadocia.

During the absence of Alcibiades, who himself went to Trasibulo, the besieging Phocaea, who took for him the command of Antiochus adopted contrary to the direct prohibition of Alcibiades battle (Note near Ephesus), which cost him his life, and the Athenians of several ships. This failure benefited the enemies of Alcibiades. It was again cocked all sorts of serious charges, and in the summer of 408, he had taken the command over the army, after which he retired to his fortified holdings on the shores of the Propontis. Vainly offered it to the Athenian generals before the fateful battle of Egos-Potamos (405) your advice and assistance. After the fall of Athens in 404 in the spring, he went to Bithynia, then to Barnabas and intended to go to Susa, to open Artaxerxes II plans of his brother Cyrus, and to secure thus his patronage. However, this time Lysander, maybe at the insistence of the so-called. The thirty tyrants of Athens, and being, in all likelihood, authorized by this Cyrus, demanded Parnavaza, so he killed of Alcibiades. By order, Parnavaza his visitor was killed by arrows during his way to Susa, in the Phrygian town of Meliss. Therefore, Alcibiades had finished his life in 404 BC Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos has left us his biography.

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Hadrian took the sample itself in August. He refused to Asian conquests of Trajan and wanted the government was limited to those outside, which was at Augusta, where he imitated and domestic policy, and in the patronage of the arts and literature. Adrian wanted to abandon Dacia is abandoned Asian conquests of Trajan, but to do this it was impossible because there were settled many Romans and Italians: it was impossible to give them as a sacrifice to the barbarians. But in Britain and on the Euphrates Adrian refused to land, ownership of which has led to the continuous wars; he gave gifts to the kings and elders of the land adjacent to the northern border of the empire, gave them a courtesy, to keep them from attacks. He considered himself entitled to show the peacefulness because he cared about the army, and it was always ready to repel the enemy. Adrian kept in the legions discipline does not allow war to indulge in pampering, care about strengthening the country’s borders; and the ruthless suppression of the Jewish revolt shows the severity with which he pacified revolts. Like Augustus, Adrian took care to strengthen the monarchy. In appearance it gave the Senate a great impact on the business and constantly showed him respect, but in fact did not allow any limitation of its sovereignty; the Senate was his only authority to proclaim the will of the emperor. Adrian chose several men who were consuls, and other senators and made of them “advice” or “sovereign consistories” (Consilium or Consistorium Principis) and gave this advice to the all important administrative and judicial proceedings; It was a convenient way to focus more than ever all the administration of the state in the hands of the emperor, and in fact all the important matters have been solved by Adrian, with the assistance of the Council; the Senate has lost any influence on the course of them.

However, according to the form of all the members of the Board Adrian remained under the control of the Senate, from which they were elected members. However, they held such a position that when the business passed to Senate consideration, he took the decision, already given to these matters with them. Meetings of the Council took place under the leadership of Hadrian or, in his absence, under the chair of the praetorian prefects; the prefects, who had originally only military duties, gradually became civil rulers; he was given the rank of senators. Adrian appoint members of its Board and gifted people who knew the affairs of state; those of the later emperors, who were wise, followed this example. When Adriana among the members of the board owned the famous lawyers Julia Celsus, Salvius Julian, Priscus eration. Establishment Board was the beginning, from which developed what is now called the Ministry; chairpersons of the ministry were the praetorian prefects; like the power of the emperors, with the establishment of the Board of increased power and these dignitaries. By establishing the Council, from which gradually formed the Ministry, Adrian put the first base and the entire general bureaucratic hierarchy, which is gradually evolving, became extremely highly complex got its final device under Constantine.

Perpetual Edict of Hadrian

Adrian heavily involved in legal proceedings; his reign begins in the judicial system, in administration, a new era. The highest judges in Italy, he appointed four of consular rank; they went judicial duties praetors, legal activity which ceased. Adrian and Rome and in the provinces he judged the case. He sat down, or in the open, or in a public building, where he was admit people. Many of the provisions of Hadrian show its legal talent and his humanity; It is, for example, laws on political crimes and the rights of masters over slaves. With the reign of Emperor Hadrian’s personal decisions on legal issues, the so-called imperial Constitution, formally receive the force of law. They clarify the legal laws are the main source of law, and edicts curule dignitaries (jus honorarium), the former main source of law in the past, have been collected and put in order the assistant Adrian, Julian Salvi. This set of edicts called “Eternal Edict”, edictum perpetuum, was declared a state code, to which no judicial dignitaries could not make any additions.

After all legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor to replenish the old laws made by the imperial rescripts, which was set to “authentic interpretations”; thus, all the tribunals were completely subordinate to the legislative power of the emperor, and if the chairmen of the main tribunals still continued to issue edicts, their edicts became unimportant, and gradually lost their legal force. It is actively concerned about the welfare of Adrian and the provinces. He carefully watched the governor, tried to enter all parts of the same tax state, the same proceedings, generally equalize the position of all parts of the empire. Visiting Province, Adrian usually gave them generous mercy: built aqueducts, harbor, baths, square, or facilitated the provision of distressed counties, cities, distribution of bread, money, tax exemption, and gave new rights to the population.

Evaluation of the reign of Hadrian, and personality

Reviewing our knowledge of Adrian, we have to admit that he, for all his faults was one of the most remarkable men of the incident in Rome. The greatest appreciation deserves Adrian as a ruler: he improved the proceedings, avoided wars, took care of the provinces, against the army of border security, the distribution of education; his patronage of the arts has created a new period of prosperity. All this shows him the great talents of the government, the mind, the ability to understand his time. The private life of Hadrian, his personal character were also good sides. He showed very diverse activities, a strong will and great giftedness. Adrian was a brave hunter, tirelessly went on foot, trained myself make all sorts of hardships, kept in the army strict discipline; reading it, we think it was more similar to the heroes of the republic than their pampered, sensual, wicked contemporaries. But we seem to be transported in the time of Caligula and Nero, reading that Adrian surrounded himself with mystics, sophists, rhetoricians, fascinated by their idle talk, their futile imaginations, believed astrological charlatanism, Eastern mystical teachings fascinated the most ridiculous superstitions, live like fighting cocks in their villas, surrounded by servants of his unnatural vices. And yet he was a libertine, looking for his own glory in the construction of huge structures, meanwhile, most of the Roman emperors thought fame as empty grandeur holidays, folk entertainment, gladiatorial combat. I must admit that all Adrian – was nevertheless much higher than those of the emperors. There are many fair words Aurelius Victor about it:

“The character of Adriana was unstable, diverse. It is as if he could at will be the virtuous man is vicious. Adrian was able to pretty well harnessed fervor of his temperament and deftly cover up their gloomy suspicion, his lust, vanity abstinence mask, courtesy, kindness, was able to conceal his ardent ambition. According excessive sensibility, Adrian offended people and serious and humorous words, but knew how to respond to the barbs on poetry verses, so it seemed: he was always ready to answer all.

Adrian is very badly behaved with respect to his wife, Sabina, he treated her like a slave-girl, and their grievances brought it to the point that she took her own life. Water illness, which he endured patiently for a long time, finally increased his irritability to the extent that it is in the hardness of their suffering ordered the execution of many senators. Adrian lived to be 62 years old and died a sad, painful death. ”

However, this feature exposes only one side of Hadrian shows it too bad. He was a large, diverse talent, receptive to all great ideas, eloquent, witty, and grumpy but succumb impressions of the moment. The character of Adrian lacked unity; a lot of it was good and many bad.

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